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<title>Human evolutionary genetics</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Human evolutionary genetics</span></span>

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<p><b>Human evolutionary genetics</b> studies how one <a href="Human_genome" title="Human genome">human genome</a> differs from another human genome, the evolutionary past that gave rise to the human genome, and its current effects. Differences between genomes have <a href="Anthropological" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropological">anthropological</a>, <a href="Medical" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical">medical</a>, historical and <a href="Forensic" class="mw-redirect" title="Forensic">forensic</a> implications and applications. Genetic data can provide important insights into <a href="Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">human evolution</a>.

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origin_of_apes">Origin of apes</h2></div>

<table id="Container" role="presentation" class="nomobile toccolours searchaux" style="text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;border-style:solid;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.3em 0 0.8em 1.4em;overflow:hidden;min-width:29.760em"><tbody><tr><td colspan="3" id="Title" style="padding:1em 1em 0 1em"><div style="background-color:#77bb77;padding:0 0.2em 0 0.2em;font-weight:bold;text-align:center"><a href="Timeline_of_human_evolution" title="Timeline of human evolution"><span style="color:#ffffff;">Hominin timeline</span></a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="3" id="Navbox" style="padding:0;margin:0 1em 0 0;text-align:right"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">

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</style></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td id="Scale" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;width:4.2em;position:relative;float:left;font-size:100%;height:50em;border-right:1px solid #242020"><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:50.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−10 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:47.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:45.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−9 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:42.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:40.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−8 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:37.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:35.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−7 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:32.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:30.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−6 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:27.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:25.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−5 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:22.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:20.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−4 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:17.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:15.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−3 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:12.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:10.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−2 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:7.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:5.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">−1 —</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:2.50em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">–</span></div><div style="float:right;position:absolute;right:-1px;top:-0.00em;transform:translateY(-50%)"><span style="font-size:90%">0 —</span></div></td><td id="Timeline" class="toccolours notheme" style="padding:0px;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;position:relative;font-size:100%;width:13em;height:50em;float:left;border:none;background-color:#FFE4F1"><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#936a00;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:26.665em;height:23.335em;left:0.000em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:-0.1em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-11.667em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><b><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1231500821">

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</style><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="Miocene" title="Miocene"><span style="color:#ffffff;">Miocene</span></a></span></b></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#f1c309;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:12.900em;height:13.765em;left:0.000em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:-0.1em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-6.883em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><b><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="Pliocene" title="Pliocene">Pliocene</a></span></b></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#c1e0c1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:0.058em;height:12.841em;left:0.000em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.75em;left:-0.1em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;font-size:90%;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-6.421em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><b><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="Pleistocene" title="Pleistocene">Pleistocene</a></span></b></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:14.000em;height:36.000em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-6.7em;left:-0.3em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-18.000em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><span style="font-size:120%"><b><a href="Hominini" title="Hominini">Hominini</a></b></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:48.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0.1em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="Nakalipithecus" title="Nakalipithecus">Nakalipithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:46.500em;height:1.000em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:0.6em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.500em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="Samburupithecus" title="Samburupithecus">Samburupithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:44.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0.2em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="Ouranopithecus" title="Ouranopithecus">Ouranopithecus</a></span></i><br><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="Ouranopithecus_turkae" title="Ouranopithecus turkae">Ou. turkae</a>)</i><br><i>(<a href="Ouranopithecus_macedoniensis" title="Ouranopithecus macedoniensis">Ou. macedoniensis</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:39.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.1em;left:0.4em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="Chororapithecus" title="Chororapithecus">Chororapithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:35.000em;height:10.000em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-1.75em;left:-0.2em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-5.000em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="Oreopithecus" title="Oreopithecus">Oreopithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:39.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1.75em;left:-0.4em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="Sivapithecus" title="Sivapithecus">Sivapithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:34.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:0.3em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="Sahelanthropus" title="Sahelanthropus">Sahelanthropus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:34.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:2em;left:0.3em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="Graecopithecus" title="Graecopithecus">Graecopithecus</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:29.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.5em;left:-1.5em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="Orrorin" title="Orrorin">Orrorin</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:29.500em;height:0.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:2.5em;left:0.15em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="Orrorin" title="Orrorin">O. praegens</a>)</i><br><i>(<a href="Orrorin" title="Orrorin">O. tugenensis</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:22.000em;height:6.850em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:-3.75em;left:-0.3em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-3.425em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="Ardipithecus" title="Ardipithecus">Ardipithecus</a></span></b></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:27.700em;height:1.150em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.75em;left:0em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.575em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="Ardipithecus_kadabba" title="Ardipithecus kadabba">Ar. kadabba</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:21.500em;height:1.000em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1em;left:0em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.500em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="Ardipithecus_ramidus" title="Ardipithecus ramidus">Ar. ramidus</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:6.000em;height:16.500em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:3em;left:0em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-8.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="Australopithecus" title="Australopithecus">Australopithecus</a></span></b></i><br><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="Australopithecus_africanus" title="Australopithecus africanus">Au. africanus</a>)</i><br><i>(<a href="Australopithecus_afarensis" title="Australopithecus afarensis">Au. afarensis</a>)</i><br><i>(<a href="Australopithecus_anamensis" title="Australopithecus anamensis">Au. anamensis</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#DCEEFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:8.250em;height:5.750em;left:2.600em;width:10.400em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0.9em;left:-0.5em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-2.875em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">H. habilis</a></span></b></i><br><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis">H. rudolfensis</a>)</i><br><i>(<a href="Australopithecus_garhi" title="Australopithecus garhi">Au. garhi</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFE4F1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:0.570em;height:9.430em;left:3.900em;width:9.100em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1.5em;left:-1em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-4.715em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">H. erectus</a></span></b></i><br><span style="font-size:85%;"><i>(<a href="Homo_antecessor" title="Homo antecessor">H. antecessor</a>)</i><br><i>(<a href="Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">H. ergaster</a>)</i><br><i>(<a href="Australopithecus_sediba" title="Australopithecus sediba">Au. sediba</a>)</i></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#FFE4F1;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:6.000em;height:2.500em;left:2.600em;width:10.400em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#7DFFFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:1.000em;height:2.500em;left:2.600em;width:10.400em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1em;left:-0.2em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-1.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><i><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="Homo_heidelbergensis" title="Homo heidelbergensis">H. heidelbergensis</a></span></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#F3F300;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:0.000em;height:1.500em;left:3.900em;width:9.100em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:-0.7em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.750em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><i><b><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="Anatomically_modern_human" class="mw-redirect" title="Anatomically modern human">Homo sapiens</a></span></b></i></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#F3F300;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:0.000em;height:0.200em;left:1.300em;width:3.900em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.100em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#7DFFFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:0.200em;height:1.050em;left:2.600em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1.8em;left:2.6em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.525em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><span class="nowrap"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthals</a></span></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#F3F300;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:0.200em;height:0.370em;left:1.300em;width:11.700em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.185em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#7DFFFF;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:0.200em;height:0.370em;left:2.600em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:1.4em;left:2.8em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-0.185em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"><span class="nowrap"><span style="font-size:90%;"><a href="Denisovan" title="Denisovan">Denisovans</a></span></span></div></div></div><div class="notheme" style="font-size:100%;background-color:#ABFFAB;border-style:none none;position:absolute;text-align:center;margin:0;padding:0;pointer-events:none;top:6.000em;height:8.500em;left:11.700em;width:1.300em"><div style="font-size:100%;position:relative;top:0em;left:0em;pointer-events:none"><div class="notheme" style="position:relative;text-align:center;vertical-align:middle;display:block;bottom:-4.250em;transform:translateY(-50%);z-index:5;pointer-events:initial"> </div></div></div></td><td id="Annotations" style="padding:0;margin:0.7em 0 0.7em 0;float:left;position:relative;width:10.860em;height:50em;pointer-events:none"><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:50.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><a href="Timeline_of_human_evolution#Hominidae" title="Timeline of human evolution">Earlier apes</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:45.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><a href="Gorilla%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Gorilla–human last common ancestor">Gorilla split</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:42.500em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><a href="Chimpanzee%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor">Chimpanzee split</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:35.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><a href="Human_skeletal_changes_due_to_bipedalism" title="Human skeletal changes due to bipedalism">Earliest bipedal</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:29.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><a href="Ardipithecus_kadabba" title="Ardipithecus kadabba">Earliest sign of <i>Ardipithecus</i></a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:22.500em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><a href="Australopithecus_anamensis" title="Australopithecus anamensis">Earliest sign of <i>Australopithecus</i></a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:17.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><a href="Stone_Age#Beginning_of_the_Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Earliest stone tools</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:14.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.25em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><a href="LD_350-1" title="LD 350-1">Earliest sign of<br> <i>Homo</i></a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:10.600em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.25em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><a href="Early_expansions_of_hominins_out_of_Africa" title="Early expansions of hominins out of Africa">Dispersal beyond Africa</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:8.500em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><a href="Control_of_fire_by_early_humans" title="Control of fire by early humans">Earliest fire</a> / <a href="Cooking#History" title="Cooking">cooking</a></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:1.000em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.6em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><span style="font-size:95%;"><a href="Rock_art#East_Asia" title="Rock art">Earliest rock art</a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.625em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:0.1em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><span style="font-size:95%;"><a href="Clothing#Origin_and_history" title="Clothing">Earliest clothes</a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><table role="presentation" style="position:absolute;z-index:15;top:0.250em;left:0em;transform:translateY(-50%);padding:0;margin:0;font-size:100%"><tbody><tr><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><span style="color:var( --color-base, #000)">←</span></td><td style="padding:0;text-align:left;vertical-align:middle"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;top:-0.4em"><div style="z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);display:block;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><span style="font-size:95%;"><a href="Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Modern humans</a></span></div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto;font-size:100%;position:absolute;text-align:center;pointer-events:none;margin-top:21.000em"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;text-align:left;pointer-events:none;top:0.25em;left:-5em;width:7em"><div style="position:relative;width:auto;z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);vertical-align:middle;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; font-size:110%"><b><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="Hominidae" title="Hominidae">H o m i n i d s</a></span></b></span></div></div></div><div class="annot-bar" style="width:auto;font-size:100%;position:absolute;text-align:center;pointer-events:none;margin-top:3.000em"><div class="annot-nudge" style="font-size:100%;float:left;position:relative;text-align:left;pointer-events:none;top:3.25em;left:-5em;width:7em"><div style="position:relative;width:auto;z-index:10;font-size:90%;color:var( --color-base, #000);vertical-align:middle;line-height:105%;bottom:0;pointer-events:initial"><span style="display:block; text-align:center; font-size:85%;"><b><span style="font-size: 85%;"><span class="ts-vertical-text" style=""><a href="Paranthropus" title="Paranthropus">P a r a n t h r o p u s</a></span></span></b></span></div></div></div></td></tr><tr><td id="Caption" colspan="3" style="padding:0;margin:0 0.2em 0.7em 0.2em"><div id="Caption" class="toccolours" style="margin:0 0.5em;border-style:none;clear:both;text-align:center;width:26.000em"><div style="float:left;font-size:85%;">(<a href="Myr" class="mw-redirect" title="Myr">million years ago</a>)</div></div></td></tr></tbody></table>

<p>Biologists classify <a href="Human" title="Human">humans</a>, along with only a few other <a href="Species" title="Species">species</a>, as <a href="Great_ape" class="mw-redirect" title="Great ape">great apes</a> (species in the <a href="Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">family</a> <a href="Hominidae" title="Hominidae">Hominidae</a>). The living Hominidae include two distinct species of <a href="Pan_(genus)" title="Pan (genus)">chimpanzee</a> (the <a href="Bonobo" title="Bonobo">bonobo</a>, <i><a href="Pan_paniscus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pan paniscus">Pan paniscus</a></i>, and the <a href="Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">chimpanzee</a>, <i><a href="Pan_troglodytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Pan troglodytes">Pan troglodytes</a></i>), two species of <a href="Gorilla" title="Gorilla">gorilla</a> (the <a href="Western_gorilla" title="Western gorilla">western gorilla</a>, <i><a href="Gorilla_gorilla" class="mw-redirect" title="Gorilla gorilla">Gorilla gorilla</a></i>, and the <a href="Eastern_gorilla" title="Eastern gorilla">eastern gorilla</a>, <i>Gorilla graueri</i>), and two species of <a href="Orangutan" title="Orangutan">orangutan</a> (the <a href="Bornean_orangutan" title="Bornean orangutan">Bornean orangutan</a>, <i><a href="Pongo_pygmaeus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pongo pygmaeus">Pongo pygmaeus</a></i>, and the <a href="Sumatran_orangutan" title="Sumatran orangutan">Sumatran orangutan</a>, <i>Pongo abelii</i>). The great apes with the family <a href="Hylobatidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Hylobatidae">Hylobatidae</a> of <a href="Gibbon" title="Gibbon">gibbons</a> form the superfamily <a href="Hominoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominoidea">Hominoidea</a> of <a href="Ape" title="Ape">apes</a>.

</p><p>Apes, in turn, belong to the <a href="Primate" title="Primate">primate</a> order (>400 species), along with the <a href="Old_World_monkeys" class="mw-redirect" title="Old World monkeys">Old World monkeys</a>, the <a href="New_World_monkeys" class="mw-redirect" title="New World monkeys">New World monkeys</a>, and others. Data from both <a href="Mitochondrial_DNA" title="Mitochondrial DNA">mitochondrial DNA</a> (mtDNA) and <a href="Nuclear_DNA" title="Nuclear DNA">nuclear DNA</a> (nDNA) indicate that primates belong to the group of <a href="Euarchontoglires" title="Euarchontoglires">Euarchontoglires</a>, together with <a href="Rodent" title="Rodent">Rodentia</a>, <a href="Lagomorpha" title="Lagomorpha">Lagomorpha</a>, <a href="Dermoptera" class="mw-redirect" title="Dermoptera">Dermoptera</a>, and <a href="Scandentia" class="mw-redirect" title="Scandentia">Scandentia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Murphy_2001_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Murphy_2001-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is further supported by Alu-like <a href="Short_interspersed_nuclear_element" title="Short interspersed nuclear element">short interspersed nuclear elements</a> (SINEs) which have been found only in members of the Euarchontoglires.<sup id="cite_ref-Kriegs_2006_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kriegs_2006-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phylogenetics">Phylogenetics</h2></div>

<p>A <a href="Phylogenetic_tree" title="Phylogenetic tree">phylogenetic tree</a> is usually derived from <a href="DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a> or <a href="Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> <a href="DNA_sequence" class="mw-redirect" title="DNA sequence">sequences</a> from populations. Often, <a href="Mitochondrial_DNA" title="Mitochondrial DNA">mitochondrial DNA</a> or <a href="Y-chromosomal_Adam" title="Y-chromosomal Adam">Y chromosome</a> sequences are used to study ancient human demographics. These single-<a href="Locus_(genetics)" title="Locus (genetics)">locus</a> sources of DNA do not <a href="Genetic_recombination" title="Genetic recombination">recombine</a> and are almost always inherited from a single parent, with only one known exception in mtDNA.<sup id="cite_ref-Schwartz_2002_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwartz_2002-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Individuals from closer geographic regions generally tend to be more similar than individuals from regions farther away. Distance on a phylogenetic tree can be used approximately to indicate:

</p>

<ol><li><b>Genetic distance</b>. The genetic difference between humans and chimpanzees is less than 2%,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or three times larger than the <a href="Human_genetic_variation" title="Human genetic variation">variation among modern humans</a> (estimated at 0.6%).<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li>

<li><b>Temporal remoteness</b> of the most recent common ancestor. The <a href="Mitochondrial_Eve" title="Mitochondrial Eve">mitochondrial most recent common ancestor</a> of modern humans is estimated to have lived roughly 160,000 years ago,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the latest common ancestors of humans and chimpanzees roughly 5 to 6 million years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-Patterson_N_2006_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Patterson_N_2006-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ol>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Speciation_of_humans_and_the_African_apes">Speciation of humans and the African apes</h2></div>

<p>The separation of humans from their closest relatives, the non-human African apes (chimpanzees and gorillas), has been studied extensively for more than a century. Five major questions have been addressed:

</p>

<ul><li>Which apes are our closest ancestors?</li>

<li>When did the separations occur?</li>

<li>What was the <a href="Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">effective population size</a> of the common ancestor before the split?</li>

<li>Are there traces of population structure (subpopulations) preceding the speciation or partial admixture succeeding it?</li>

<li>What were the specific events (including fusion of chromosomes 2a and 2b) prior to and subsequent to the separation?</li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_observations">General observations</h3></div>

<p>As discussed before, different parts of the genome show different sequence divergence between different <a href="Ape" title="Ape">hominoids</a>. It has also been shown that the sequence divergence between DNA from humans and chimpanzees varies greatly. For example, the sequence divergence varies between 0% to 2.66% between non-coding, non-repetitive <a href="Genomic" class="mw-redirect" title="Genomic">genomic</a> regions of humans and chimpanzees.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen_Li_2001_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen_Li_2001-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The percentage of nucleotides in the human genome (hg38) that had one-to-one exact matches in the chimpanzee genome (pantro6) was 84.38%. Additionally gene trees, generated by comparative analysis of DNA segments, do not always fit the species tree. Summing up:

</p>

<ul><li>The sequence divergence varies significantly between humans, chimpanzees and gorillas.</li>

<li>For most DNA sequences, humans and chimpanzees appear to be most closely related, but some point to a human-gorilla or chimpanzee-gorilla <a href="Clade" title="Clade">clade</a>.</li>

<li>The human genome has been sequenced, as well as the chimpanzee genome. Humans have 23 pairs of chromosomes, while <a href="Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a>, <a href="Gorilla" title="Gorilla">gorillas</a> and <a href="Orangutan" title="Orangutan">orangutans</a> have 24. <a href="Chromosome_2_(human)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chromosome 2 (human)">Human chromosome 2</a> is a fusion of two chromosomes 2a and 2b that remained separate in the other primates.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Divergence_times">Divergence times</h3></div>

<p>The divergence time of humans from other apes is of great interest. One of the first molecular studies, published in 1967 measured immunological distances (IDs) between different primates.<sup id="cite_ref-Sarich_Wilson_1967_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sarich_Wilson_1967-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Basically the study measured the strength of immunological response that an <a href="Antigen" title="Antigen">antigen</a> from one species (human albumin) induces in the immune system of another species (human, chimpanzee, gorilla and <a href="Old_World_monkey" title="Old World monkey">Old World monkeys</a>). Closely related species should have similar antigens and therefore weaker immunological response to each other's antigens. The immunological response of a species to its own antigens (e.g. human to human) was set to be 1.

</p><p>The ID between humans and gorillas was determined to be 1.09, that between humans and chimpanzees was determined as 1.14. However the distance to six different Old World monkeys was on average 2.46, indicating that the African apes are more closely related to humans than to monkeys. The authors consider the divergence time between Old World monkeys and hominoids to be 30 million years ago (MYA), based on fossil data, and the immunological distance was considered to grow at a constant rate. They concluded that divergence time of humans and the African apes to be roughly ~5 MYA. That was a surprising result. Most scientists at that time thought that humans and great apes diverged much earlier (>15 MYA).

</p><p>The gorilla was, in ID terms, closer to human than to chimpanzees; however, the difference was so slight that the <a href="Speciation#Genetics" title="Speciation">trichotomy</a> could not be resolved with certainty. Later studies based on molecular genetics were able to resolve the trichotomy: chimpanzees are <a href="Phylogenetics" title="Phylogenetics">phylogenetically</a> closer to humans than to gorillas. However, some divergence times estimated later (using much more sophisticated methods in molecular genetics) do not substantially differ from the very first estimate in 1967, but a recent paper<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> puts it at 11–14 MYA.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Divergence_times_and_ancestral_effective_population_size">Divergence times and ancestral effective population size</h3></div>

<p>Current methods to determine divergence times use DNA sequence alignments and <a href="Molecular_clock" title="Molecular clock">molecular clocks</a>. Usually the molecular clock is calibrated assuming that the <a href="Orangutan" title="Orangutan">orangutan</a> split from the African apes (including humans) 12-16 MYA. Some studies also include some old world monkeys and set the divergence time of them from <a href="Hominoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominoid">hominoids</a> to 25-30 MYA. Both calibration points are based on very little fossil data and have been criticized.<sup id="cite_ref-Yoder_Yang_2000_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yoder_Yang_2000-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>If these dates are revised, the divergence times estimated from molecular data will change as well. However, the relative divergence times are unlikely to change. Even if we cannot tell absolute divergence times exactly, we can be fairly sure that the divergence time between <a href="Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a> and humans is about sixfold shorter than between chimpanzees (or humans) and monkeys.

</p><p>One study (Takahata <i>et al.</i>, 1995) used 15 DNA sequences from different regions of the genome from human and chimpanzee and 7 DNA sequences from human, chimpanzee and <a href="Gorilla" title="Gorilla">gorilla</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Takahata_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Takahata-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They determined that chimpanzees are more closely related to humans than gorillas. Using various statistical methods, they estimated the divergence time human-chimp to be 4.7 MYA and the divergence time between gorillas and humans (and chimps) to be 7.2 MYA.

</p><p>Additionally they estimated the <a href="Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">effective population size</a> of the common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees to be ~100,000. This was somewhat surprising since the present day effective population size of humans is estimated to be only ~10,000. If true that means that the human lineage would have experienced an immense decrease of its effective population size (and thus genetic diversity) in its evolution. (see <a href="Toba_catastrophe_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Toba catastrophe theory">Toba catastrophe theory</a>)

</p>

<p>Another study (Chen & Li, 2001) sequenced 53 non-repetitive, intergenic DNA segments from human, <a href="Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">chimpanzee</a>, <a href="Gorilla" title="Gorilla">gorilla</a> and <a href="Orangutan" title="Orangutan">orangutan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Chen_Li_2001_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen_Li_2001-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> When the DNA sequences were concatenated to a single long sequence, the generated <a href="Neighbor-joining" class="mw-redirect" title="Neighbor-joining">neighbor-joining</a> tree supported the <i><a href="Homo" title="Homo">Homo</a></i>-<i>Pan</i> clade with 100% bootstrap (that is that humans and chimpanzees are the closest related species of the four). When three species are fairly closely related to each other (like human, chimpanzee and gorilla), the trees obtained from DNA sequence data may not be congruent with the tree that represents the speciation (species tree).

</p><p>The shorter the internodal time span (T<sub>IN</sub>), the more common are incongruent gene trees. The effective population size (N<sub>e</sub>) of the internodal population determines how long genetic lineages are preserved in the population. A higher effective population size causes more incongruent gene trees. Therefore, if the internodal time span is known, the ancestral effective population size of the common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees can be calculated.

</p><p>When each segment was analyzed individually, 31 supported the <i>Homo</i>-<i>Pan</i> clade, 10 supported the <i>Homo</i>-<i>Gorilla</i> clade, and 12 supported the <i>Pan</i>-<i>Gorilla</i> clade. Using the molecular clock the authors estimated that gorillas split up first 6.2-8.4 MYA and chimpanzees and humans split up 1.6-2.2 million years later (internodal time span) 4.6-6.2 MYA. The internodal time span is useful to estimate the ancestral effective population size of the common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees.

</p><p>A <a href="Parsimonious" class="mw-redirect" title="Parsimonious">parsimonious</a> analysis revealed that 24 loci supported the <i>Homo</i>-<i>Pan</i> clade, 7 supported the <i>Homo</i>-<i>Gorilla</i> clade, 2 supported the <i>Pan</i>-<i>Gorilla</i> clade and 20 gave no resolution. Additionally they took 35 protein coding loci from databases. Of these 12 supported the <i>Homo</i>-<i>Pan</i> clade, 3 the <i>Homo</i>-<i>Gorilla</i> clade, 4 the <i>Pan</i>-<i>Gorilla</i> clade and 16 gave no resolution. Therefore, only ~70% of the 52 loci that gave a resolution (33 intergenic, 19 protein coding) support the 'correct' species tree. From the fraction of loci which did not support the species tree and the internodal time span they estimated previously, the effective population of the common ancestor of humans and chimpanzees was estimated to be ~52 000 to 96 000. This value is not as high as that from the first study (Takahata), but still much higher than present day effective population size of humans.

</p><p>A third study (Yang, 2002) used the same dataset that Chen and Li used but estimated the ancestral effective population of 'only' ~12,000 to 21,000, using a different statistical method.<sup id="cite_ref-Yang_2002_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yang_2002-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genetic_differences_between_humans_and_other_great_apes">Genetic differences between humans and other great apes</h2></div>

<p>Humans and chimpanzees are 99.1% identical at the coding level, with 99.4% similarity at the nonsynonymous level and 98.4% at the synonymous level.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The alignable sequences within genomes of humans and chimpanzees differ by about 35 million single-nucleotide substitutions. Additionally about 3% of the complete genomes differ by deletions, insertions and duplications.<sup id="cite_ref-CSAC_2005_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CSAC_2005-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Since mutation rate is relatively constant, roughly one half of these changes occurred in the human lineage. Only a very tiny fraction of those fixed differences gave rise to the different phenotypes of humans and chimpanzees and finding those is a great challenge. The vast majority of the differences are neutral and do not affect the <a href="Phenotype" title="Phenotype">phenotype</a>.

</p><p><a href="Molecular_evolution" title="Molecular evolution">Molecular evolution</a> may act in different ways, through protein evolution, gene loss, differential gene regulation and RNA evolution. All are thought to have played some part in human evolution.

</p>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Gene loss" redirects here. For gene loss in microorganisms, see <a href="Reductive_evolution" title="Reductive evolution">Reductive evolution</a>.</div>

<p>Many different mutations can inactivate a gene, but few will change its function in a specific way. Inactivation mutations will therefore be readily available for selection to act on. Gene loss could thus be a common mechanism of evolutionary adaptation (the "less-is-more" hypothesis).<sup id="cite_ref-Olson_1999_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Olson_1999-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>80 genes were lost in the human lineage after separation from the last common ancestor with the chimpanzee. 36 of those were for <a href="Olfactory_receptors" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfactory receptors">olfactory receptors</a>. Genes involved in chemoreception and immune response are overrepresented.<sup id="cite_ref-Wang_Grus_2006_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wang_Grus_2006-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another study estimated that 86 genes had been lost.<sup id="cite_ref-Demuth_2006_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Demuth_2006-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hair_keratin_gene_KRTHAP1">Hair keratin gene KRTHAP1</h4></div>

<p>A gene for type I hair <a href="Keratin" title="Keratin">keratin</a> was lost in the human lineage. Keratins are a major component of hairs. Humans still have nine functional type I hair keratin genes, but the loss of that particular gene may have caused the thinning of human body hair. Based on the assumption of a constant molecular clock, the study predicts the gene loss occurred relatively recently in human evolution—less than 240 000 years ago, but both the Vindija Neandertal and the high-coverage Denisovan sequence contain the same premature stop codons as modern humans and hence dating should be greater than 750 000 years ago. <sup id="cite_ref-Winter_2001_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Winter_2001-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Evolution_of_hair" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of hair">Evolution of hair</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Myosin_gene_MYH16">Myosin gene MYH16</h4></div>

<p>Stedman <i>et al.</i> (2004) stated that the loss of the sarcomeric <a href="Myosin" title="Myosin">myosin</a> gene <a href="MYH16" class="mw-redirect" title="MYH16">MYH16</a> in the human lineage led to smaller <a href="Masticatory_muscles" class="mw-redirect" title="Masticatory muscles">masticatory muscles</a>. They estimated that the mutation that led to the inactivation (a two base pair deletion) occurred 2.4 million years ago, predating the appearance of <i><a href="Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">Homo ergaster</a>/erectus</i> in Africa. The period that followed was marked by a strong increase in <a href="Cranial_capacity" class="mw-redirect" title="Cranial capacity">cranial capacity</a>, promoting speculation that the loss of the gene may have removed an evolutionary constraint on brain size in the genus <i>Homo</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Stedman_2004_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stedman_2004-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Another estimate for the loss of the MYH16 gene is 5.3 million years ago, long before <i>Homo</i> appeared.<sup id="cite_ref-Perry_2005_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perry_2005-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other">Other</h4></div>

<ul><li><a href="Caspase_12" title="Caspase 12">CASPASE12</a>, a cysteinyl aspartate proteinase. The loss of this gene is speculated to have reduced the lethality of bacterial infection in humans.<sup id="cite_ref-Wang_Grus_2006_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wang_Grus_2006-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gene_addition">Gene addition</h3></div>

<p><a href="Segmental_duplication" class="mw-redirect" title="Segmental duplication">Segmental duplications</a> (SDs or <a href="Low_copy_repeats" title="Low copy repeats">LCRs</a>) have had roles in creating new primate genes and shaping human genetic variation.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human-specific_DNA_insertions">Human-specific DNA insertions</h3></div>

<p>When the human genome was compared to the genomes of five comparison primate species, including the <a href="Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">chimpanzee</a>, <a href="Gorilla" title="Gorilla">gorilla</a>, <a href="Orangutan" title="Orangutan">orangutan</a>, gibbon, and macaque, it was found that there are approximately 20,000 human-specific insertions believed to be regulatory. While most insertions appear to be fitness neutral, a small amount have been identified in positively selected genes showing associations to neural phenotypes and some relating to dental and sensory perception-related phenotypes. These findings hint at the seemingly important role of human-specific insertions in the recent evolution of humans.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Selection_pressures">Selection pressures</h3></div>

<p><a href="Human_accelerated_regions" title="Human accelerated regions">Human accelerated regions</a> are areas of the genome that differ between humans and chimpanzees to a greater extent than can be explained by genetic drift over the time since the two species shared a common ancestor. These regions show signs of being subject to natural selection, leading to the evolution of distinctly human traits. Two examples are <a href="HAR1F" class="mw-redirect" title="HAR1F">HAR1F</a>, which is believed to be related to brain development and HAR2 (a.k.a. <a href="HACNS1" class="mw-redirect" title="HACNS1">HACNS1</a>) that may have played a role in the development of the <a href="Thumb" title="Thumb">opposable thumb</a>.

</p><p>It has also been hypothesized that much of the difference between humans and chimpanzees is attributable to the <a href="Regulation_of_gene_expression" title="Regulation of gene expression">regulation of gene expression</a> rather than differences in the genes themselves. Analyses of <a href="Conserved_non-coding_sequence" title="Conserved non-coding sequence">conserved non-coding sequences</a>, which often contain functional and thus positively selected regulatory regions, address this possibility.<sup id="cite_ref-Bird_2007_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bird_2007-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sequence_divergence_between_humans_and_apes">Sequence divergence between humans and apes</h3></div>

<p>When the draft sequence of the common chimpanzee (<i>Pan troglodytes</i>) genome was published in the summer 2005, 2400 million bases (of ~3160 million bases) were sequenced and assembled well enough to be compared to the human genome.<sup id="cite_ref-CSAC_2005_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CSAC_2005-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 1.23% of this sequenced differed by single-base substitutions. Of this, 1.06% or less was thought to represent fixed differences between the species, with the rest being variant sites in humans or chimpanzees. Another type of difference, called <a href="Indel" title="Indel">indels</a> (insertions/deletions) accounted for many fewer differences (15% as many), but contributed ~1.5% of unique sequence to each genome, since each insertion or deletion can involve anywhere from one base to millions of bases.<sup id="cite_ref-CSAC_2005_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CSAC_2005-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>A companion paper examined <a href="Segmental_duplication" class="mw-redirect" title="Segmental duplication">segmental duplications</a> in the two genomes,<sup id="cite_ref-Cheng_2005_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cheng_2005-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> whose insertion and deletion into the genome account for much of the indel sequence. They found that a total of 2.7% of euchromatic sequence had been differentially duplicated in one or the other lineage.

</p>

<caption><b>Percentage sequence divergence between humans and other <a href="Hominidae" title="Hominidae">hominids</a></b><sup id="cite_ref-Chen_Li_2001_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Chen_Li_2001-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</caption>

<th>Locus</th>

<th>Human-Chimp</th>

<th>Human-Gorilla</th>

<th>Human-Orangutan

</th></tr>

<tr>

<th align="left">Alu elements

</th>

<td>-

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th align="left">Non-coding (Chr. Y)

</th>

<td>5.63 ± 0.35

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th align="left">Pseudogenes (autosomal)

</th>

<td>-

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th align="left">Pseudogenes (Chr. X)

</th>

<td>-

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th align="left">Noncoding (autosomal)

</th>

<td>3.08 ± 0.11

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th align="left">Genes (K<sub>s</sub>)

</th>

<td>2.98

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th align="left">Introns

</th>

<td>-

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th align="left">Xq13.3

</th>

<td>3.00 ± 0.18

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th align="left">Subtotal for X chromosome

</th>

<td>-

</td></tr>

<tr>

<th align="left">Genes (K<sub>a</sub>)

</th>

<td>1.96

</td></tr></tbody></table>

<p>The sequence divergence has generally the following pattern: Human-Chimp < Human-Gorilla << Human-Orangutan, highlighting the close kinship between humans and the African apes. <a href="Alu_sequence" class="mw-redirect" title="Alu sequence">Alu elements</a> diverge quickly due to their high frequency of <a href="CpG_site" title="CpG site">CpG</a> dinucleotides which mutate roughly 10 times more often than the average nucleotide in the genome. The mutation rate is higher in the male <a href="Germ_line" class="mw-redirect" title="Germ line">germ line</a>, therefore the divergence in the <a href="Y_chromosome" title="Y chromosome">Y chromosome</a>—which is inherited solely from the father—is higher than in <a href="Autosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Autosomes">autosomes</a>. The <a href="X_chromosome" title="X chromosome">X chromosome</a> is inherited twice as often through the female germ line as through the male germ line and therefore shows slightly lower sequence divergence. The sequence divergence of the Xq13.3 region is surprisingly low between humans and chimpanzees.<sup id="cite_ref-Kaessmann_1999_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaessmann_1999-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Mutations altering the amino acid sequence of proteins (K<sub>a</sub>) are the least common. In fact ~29% of all orthologous proteins are identical between human and chimpanzee. The typical protein differs by only two amino acids.<sup id="cite_ref-CSAC_2005_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CSAC_2005-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

The measures of sequence divergence shown in the table only take the substitutional differences, for example from an A (<a href="Adenine" title="Adenine">adenine</a>) to a G (<a href="Guanine" title="Guanine">guanine</a>), into account. DNA sequences may however also differ by insertions and deletions (<a href="Indel" title="Indel">indels</a>) of bases. These are usually stripped from the alignments before the calculation of sequence divergence is performed.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genetic_differences_between_modern_humans_and_Neanderthals">Genetic differences between modern humans and Neanderthals</h2></div>

<p>An international group of scientists completed a draft sequence of the <a href="Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthal</a> genome in May 2010. The results indicate some <a href="Archaic_human_admixture_with_modern_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic human admixture with modern humans">breeding between modern humans (<i>Homo sapiens</i>) and Neanderthals (<i>Homo neanderthalensis</i>)</a>, as the genomes of non-African humans have 1–4% more in common with Neanderthals than do the genomes of subsaharan Africans. Neanderthals and most modern humans share a <a href="Lactose-intolerant" class="mw-redirect" title="Lactose-intolerant">lactose-intolerant</a> variant of the <a href="Lactase" title="Lactase">lactase</a> gene that encodes an enzyme that is unable to break down lactose in milk after weaning. Modern humans and Neanderthals also share the <a href="FOXP2" title="FOXP2">FOXP2</a> gene variant associated with brain development and with speech in modern humans, indicating that Neanderthals may have been able to speak. Chimps have two amino acid differences in FOXP2 compared with human and Neanderthal FOXP2.<sup id="cite_ref-Saey_2009_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saey_2009-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Green_2010_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Green_2010-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Hawks_2010_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hawks_2010-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Genetic_differences_among_modern_humans">Genetic differences among modern humans</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Human_genetic_variation" title="Human genetic variation">Human genetic variation</a>, <a href="Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent human evolution</a>, <a href="Archaic_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic humans">Archaic humans</a>, <a href="Archaic_admixture" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic admixture">Archaic admixture</a>, <a href="Race_and_genetics" title="Race and genetics">Race and genetics</a>, and <a href="Human_variability" title="Human variability">Human variability</a></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Human_genetics" title="Human genetics">Human genetics</a>, <a href="Archaeogenetics" title="Archaeogenetics">Archaeogenetics</a>, <a href="Human_mitochondrial_DNA_haplogroup" title="Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup">Human mitochondrial DNA haplogroup</a>, <a href="Human_Y-chromosome_DNA_haplogroup" title="Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup">Human Y-chromosome DNA haplogroup</a>, and <a href="Genetic_genealogy" title="Genetic genealogy">Genetic genealogy</a></div>

<p><i><a href="Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a></i> is thought to have emerged about 300,000 years ago. It dispersed throughout Africa, and after <a href="Coastal_migration" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal migration">70,000 years ago</a> throughout Eurasia and Oceania.

A 2009 study identified 14 "ancestral population clusters", the most remote being the <a href="San_people" title="San people">San people</a> of Southern Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-Tishkoff_2009_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tishkoff_2009-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>With their rapid expansion throughout different climate zones, and especially with the availability of new food sources with the <a href="Animal_husbandry#Birth_of_husbandry" title="Animal husbandry">domestication of cattle</a> and the <a href="Neolithic_Revolution" title="Neolithic Revolution">development of agriculture</a>, human populations have been exposed to significant <a href="Selective_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Selective pressure">selective pressures</a> since their dispersal. For example, the ancestors of <a href="East_Asians" class="mw-redirect" title="East Asians">East Asians</a> are thought to have undergone processess of selection for a number of alleles, including variants of the <a href="EDAR" class="mw-redirect" title="EDAR">EDAR</a>, <a href="ADH1B" title="ADH1B">ADH1B</a>, <a href="ABCC1" title="ABCC1">ABCC1</a>, and <a href="ALDH2" title="ALDH2">ALDH2</a> genes.

</p><p>The East Asian types of ADH1B in particular are associated with <a href="Oryza_sativa#Continental_East_Asia" title="Oryza sativa">rice domestication</a> and would thus have arisen after the development of rice cultivation roughly 10,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Several phenotypical traits of characteristic of East Asians are due to a single mutation of the <a href="EDAR" class="mw-redirect" title="EDAR">EDAR</a> gene, dated to c. 35,000 years ago.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>As of 2017, the Single Nucleotide Polymorphism Database (<a href="DbSNP" title="DbSNP">dbSNP</a>), which lists SNP and other variants, listed a total of 324 million variants found in sequenced human genomes.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

<a href="Nucleotide_diversity" title="Nucleotide diversity">Nucleotide diversity</a>, the average proportion of nucleotides that differ between two individuals, is estimated at between 0.1% and 0.4% for contemporary humans (compared to 2% between humans and chimpanzees).<sup id="cite_ref-Jorde04_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Jorde04-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Tishkoff04_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tishkoff04-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

This corresponds to genome differences at a few million sites; the <a href="1000_Genomes_Project" title="1000 Genomes Project">1000 Genomes Project</a> similarly found

that "a typical [individual] genome differs from the reference human genome at 4.1 million to 5.0 million sites … affecting 20 million bases of sequence."<sup id="cite_ref-:0_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In February 2019, scientists discovered evidence, based on <a href="Genetics" title="Genetics">genetics studies</a> using <a href="Artificial_intelligence" title="Artificial intelligence">artificial intelligence</a> (AI), that suggest the existence of an unknown human ancestor species, not <a href="Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthal</a>, <a href="Denisovan" title="Denisovan">Denisovan</a> or human hybrid (like <a href="Denny_(hybrid_hominin)" title="Denny (hybrid hominin)">Denny (hybrid hominin)</a>), in the <a href="Genome" title="Genome">genome</a> of <a href="Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">modern humans</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NC-20190116_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NC-20190116-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SA-20190211_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SA-20190211-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Research_studies">Research studies</h2></div>

<p>In March 2019, Chinese scientists reported inserting the human brain-related <a href="Microcephalin" title="Microcephalin">MCPH1 gene</a> into laboratory <a href="Rhesus_monkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhesus monkey">rhesus monkeys</a>, resulting in the transgenic monkeys performing better and answering faster on "short-term memory tests involving matching colors and shapes", compared to control non-transgenic monkeys, according to the researchers.<sup id="cite_ref-DSVR-20191229_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DSVR-20191229-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NSR-20190327_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NSR-20190327-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>In May 2023, scientists reported, based on genetic studies, a more complicated pathway of human evolution than previously understood. According to the studies, humans evolved from different places and times in Africa, instead of from a single location and period of time.<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20230517_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20230517-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-NAT-20230517_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAT-20230517-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>On 31 August 2023, researchers reported, based on genetic studies, that a <a href="Human_ancestor" class="mw-redirect" title="Human ancestor">human ancestor</a> <a href="Population_bottleneck" title="Population bottleneck">population bottleneck</a> occurred "around 930,000 and 813,000 years ago ... lasted for about 117,000 years and brought human ancestors close to extinction."<sup id="cite_ref-NYT-20230831_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20230831-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-SCI-20230831_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20230831-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

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<ul><li><a href="Chimpanzee_genome_project" title="Chimpanzee genome project">Chimpanzee genome project</a></li>

<li><a href="FOXP2_and_human_evolution" class="mw-redirect" title="FOXP2 and human evolution">FOXP2 and human evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetics_and_archaeogenetics_of_South_Asia" title="Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia">Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_history_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas">Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_history_of_Italy" title="Genetic history of Italy">Genetic history of Italy</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_history_of_the_British_Isles" title="Genetic history of the British Isles">Genetic history of the British Isles</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_history_of_the_Middle_East" title="Genetic history of the Middle East">Genetic history of the Middle East</a></li>

<li><a href="Homininae" title="Homininae">Homininae</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_haplogroups_of_historical_and_famous_figures" class="mw-redirect" title="List of haplogroups of historical and famous figures">List of haplogroups of historical and famous figures</a></li>

<li><i><a href="The_Journey_of_Man%3A_A_Genetic_Odyssey" class="mw-redirect" title="The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey">The Journey of Man: A Genetic Odyssey</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Y-DNA_haplogroups_by_ethnic_groups" class="mw-redirect" title="Y-DNA haplogroups by ethnic groups">Y-DNA haplogroups by ethnic groups</a></li>

<li><a href="Race_and_genetics" title="Race and genetics">Race and genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent human evolution</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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<li id="cite_note-Kriegs_2006-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kriegs_2006_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFKriegs,_J.O.Churakov,_G.Kiefmann,_M.Jordan,_U.2006" class="citation journal cs1">Kriegs, J.O.; Churakov, G.; Kiefmann, M.; Jordan, U.; Brosius, J.; Schmitz, J. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1395351">"Retroposed elements as archives for the evolutionary history of placental mammals"</a>. <i>PLOS Biol</i>. <b>4</b> (4): e91. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1371%2Fjournal.pbio.0040091">10.1371/journal.pbio.0040091</a></span>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1395351">1395351</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16515367">16515367</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Schwartz_2002-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schwartz_2002_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSchwartzVissing2002" class="citation journal cs1">Schwartz M, Vissing J (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMoa020350">"Paternal Inheritance of Mitochondrial DNA"</a>. <i>N Engl J Med</i>. <b>347</b> (8): <span class="nowrap">576–</span>580. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1056%2FNEJMoa020350">10.1056/NEJMoa020350</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12192017">12192017</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/07/3/l_073_47.html">""Human Chromosome 2." <i>PBS</i>"</a>. <i><a href="PBS" title="PBS">PBS</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180731052022/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/evolution/library/07/3/l_073_47.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-07-31<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-08-31</span></span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">As of 2015, the typical difference between the genomes of two individuals was estimated at 20 million base pairs (or 0.6% of the total of 3.2 billion base pairs):

"a typical [individual] genome differs from the reference human genome at 4.1 million to 5.0 million sites [...] affecting 20 million bases of sequence"

<cite id="CITEREFAutonBrooksDurbinGarrison2015" class="citation journal cs1">Auton A, Brooks LD, Durbin RM, Garrison EP, Kang HM, Korbel JO, et al. (October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4750478">"A global reference for human genetic variation"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>526</b> (7571): <span class="nowrap">68–</span>74. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2015Natur.526...68T">2015Natur.526...68T</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnature15393">10.1038/nature15393</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4750478">4750478</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26432245">26432245</a>.</cite> </span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"134 to 188 ka": <cite id="CITEREFFuMittnikJohnsonBos2013" class="citation journal cs1">Fu Q, Mittnik A, Johnson PL, Bos K, Lari M, Bollongino R, Sun C, Giemsch L, Schmitz R, Burger J, Ronchitelli AM, Martini F, Cremonesi RG, Svoboda J, Bauer P, Caramelli D, Castellano S, Reich D, Pääbo S, Krause J (March 21, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5036973">"A revised timescale for human evolution based on ancient mitochondrial genomes"</a>. <i>Current Biology</i>. <b>23</b> (7): <span class="nowrap">553–</span>59. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2013CBio...23..553F">2013CBio...23..553F</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2013.02.044">10.1016/j.cub.2013.02.044</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5036973">5036973</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23523248">23523248</a>.</cite>.</span>

</li>

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<li id="cite_note-NYT-20230517-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NYT-20230517_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFZimmer2023" class="citation news cs1"><a href="Carl_Zimmer" title="Carl Zimmer">Zimmer, Carl</a> (17 May 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/05/17/science/human-origins-africa.html">"Study Offers New Twist in How the First Humans Evolved - A new genetic analysis of 290 people suggests that humans emerged at various times and places in Africa"</a>. <i><a href="The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20230517235653/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/05/17/science/human-origins-africa.html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 May 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 May</span> 2023</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-NAT-20230517-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NAT-20230517_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRagsdale,vAaron_P.2023" class="citation journal cs1">Ragsdale,vAaron P.; et al. (17 May 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10208968">"A weakly structured stem for human origins in Africa"</a>. <i><a href="Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a></i>. <b>167</b> (7962): <span class="nowrap">755–</span>763. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023Natur.617..755R">2023Natur.617..755R</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41586-023-06055-y">10.1038/s41586-023-06055-y</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC10208968">10208968</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37198480">37198480</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-NYT-20230831-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-NYT-20230831_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFZimmer2023" class="citation news cs1"><a href="Carl_Zimmer" title="Carl Zimmer">Zimmer, Carl</a> (31 August 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/08/31/science/human-survival-bottleneck.html">"Humanity's Ancestors Nearly Died Out, Genetic Study Suggests - The population crashed following climate change about 930,000 years ago, scientists concluded. Other experts aren't convinced by the analysis"</a>. <i><a href="The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">the New York Times</a></i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20230831182259/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/08/31/science/human-survival-bottleneck.html">Archived</a> from the original on 31 August 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-SCI-20230831-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-SCI-20230831_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFHu,_Wangjie2023" class="citation journal cs1">Hu, Wangjie; et al. (31 August 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abq7487">"Genomic inference of a severe human bottleneck during the Early to Middle Pleistocene transition"</a>. <i><a href="Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>381</b> (6661): <span class="nowrap">979–</span>984. <a href="Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023Sci...381..979H">2023Sci...381..979H</a>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.abq7487">10.1126/science.abq7487</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37651513">37651513</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:261396309">261396309</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20230901024052/https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abq7487">Archived</a> from the original on 1 September 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2 September</span> 2023</span>.</cite></span>

</li>

</ol></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFJoblingHolloxHurlesKivisild2013" class="citation book cs1">Jobling, Mark A.; Hollox, Edward; Hurles, Matthew; Kivisild, Toomas; Tyler-Smith, Chris (2013). <i>Human Evolutionary Genetics</i>. New York: Garland Science. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-8153-4148-2</bdi>. <a href="OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/829099073">829099073</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFRannalaYang2003" class="citation journal cs1">Rannala B, Yang Z (August 2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.genetics.org/content/164/4/1645.full">"Bayes estimation of species divergence times and ancestral population sizes using DNA sequences from multiple loci"</a>. <i>Genetics</i>. <b>164</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">1645–</span>56. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fgenetics%2F164.4.1645">10.1093/genetics/164.4.1645</a>. <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1462670">1462670</a></span>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12930768">12930768</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/05/17/AR2006051702158_pf.html">Human Ancestors May Have Interbred With Chimpanzees</a></li></ul>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_evolution511" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div id="Human_evolution511" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Human evolution</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="Human_taxonomy" title="Human taxonomy">Taxonomy</a><br>(<a href="Hominini" title="Hominini">Hominins</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Most_recent_common_ancestor" title="Most recent common ancestor">Last common ancestors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Chimpanzee%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor">Chimpanzee–human</a></li>

<li><a href="Gorilla%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Gorilla–human last common ancestor">Gorilla–human</a></li>

<li><a href="Orangutan%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Orangutan–human last common ancestor">Orangutan–human</a></li>

<li><a href="Gibbon%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Gibbon–human last common ancestor">Gibbon–human</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Australopithecine" title="Australopithecine">Australopithecines</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Nakalipithecus" title="Nakalipithecus">Nakalipithecus</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Orrorin" title="Orrorin">Orrorin</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Sahelanthropus" title="Sahelanthropus">Sahelanthropus</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Kenyanthropus" title="Kenyanthropus">Kenyanthropus</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="Ardipithecus" title="Ardipithecus">Ardipithecus</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Ardipithecus_kadabba" title="Ardipithecus kadabba">A. kadabba</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Ardipithecus_ramidus" title="Ardipithecus ramidus">A. ramidus</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="Australopithecus" title="Australopithecus">Australopithecus</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Australopithecus_afarensis" title="Australopithecus afarensis">A. afarensis</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Australopithecus_africanus" title="Australopithecus africanus">A. africanus</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Australopithecus_anamensis" title="Australopithecus anamensis">A. anamensis</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Australopithecus_bahrelghazali" title="Australopithecus bahrelghazali">A. bahrelghazali</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Australopithecus_deyiremeda" title="Australopithecus deyiremeda">A. deyiremeda</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Australopithecus_garhi" title="Australopithecus garhi">A. garhi</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Australopithecus_sediba" title="Australopithecus sediba">A. sediba</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="Paranthropus" title="Paranthropus">Paranthropus</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Paranthropus_aethiopicus" title="Paranthropus aethiopicus">P. aethiopicus</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Paranthropus_boisei" title="Paranthropus boisei">P. boisei</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Paranthropus_robustus" title="Paranthropus robustus">P. robustus</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Homo" title="Homo">Humans and<br>proto-humans<br>(<i>Homo</i>)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Proto-humans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Homo_gautengensis" title="Homo gautengensis">H. gautengensis</a></i> (?)</li>

<li><i><a href="Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">H. habilis</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Homo_naledi" title="Homo naledi">H. naledi</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Homo_rudolfensis" title="Homo rudolfensis">H. rudolfensis</a></i> (?)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Java_Man" title="Java Man">H. e. erectus</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Dmanisi_hominins" title="Dmanisi hominins">H. e. georgicus</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Lantian_Man" title="Lantian Man">H. e. lantianensis</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Nanjing_Man" title="Nanjing Man">H. e. nankinensis</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Peking_Man" title="Peking Man">H. e. pekinensis</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Solo_Man" title="Solo Man">H. e. soloensis</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Tautavel_Man" title="Tautavel Man">H. e. tautavelensis</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Yuanmou_Man" title="Yuanmou Man">H. e. yuanmouensis</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Archaic_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic humans">Archaic humans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Homo_antecessor" title="Homo antecessor">H. antecessor</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Denisovan" title="Denisovan">Denisovans</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">H. ergaster</a></i> (?)</li>

<li><i><a href="Homo_floresiensis" title="Homo floresiensis">H. floresiensis</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Homo_heidelbergensis" title="Homo heidelbergensis">H. heidelbergensis</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Homo_longi" title="Homo longi">H. longi</a></i> (?)</li>

<li><i><a href="Homo_luzonensis" title="Homo luzonensis">H. luzonensis</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">H. neanderthalensis</a></i></li>

<li><i><a href="Homo_rhodesiensis" title="Homo rhodesiensis">H. rhodesiensis</a></i> (?)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="Human" title="Human">Modern humans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Homo_sapiens26" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><i><a href="Human" title="Human">Homo sapiens</a></i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Early_modern_human" title="Early modern human"><i>H. s. sapiens</i> (archaic homo sapiens, anatomically modern humans)</a></li>

<li><a href="Jebel_Irhoud" title="Jebel Irhoud">Jebel Irhoud</a></li>

<li><i><a href="Herto_Man" title="Herto Man">H. s. idaltu</a></i></li>

<li><a href="Cro-Magnon" title="Cro-Magnon">Cro-Magnon</a></li>

<li><a href="Manot_1" title="Manot 1">Manot people</a></li>

<li><a href="Red_Deer_Cave_people" title="Red Deer Cave people">Red Deer Cave people</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%"><a href="Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Ancestors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><i><a href="Homo_habilis" title="Homo habilis">Homo habilis</a></i> → <i><a href="Homo_ergaster" title="Homo ergaster">Homo ergaster</a></i> / <i><a href="Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a></i> (→ <i><a href="Homo_antecessor" title="Homo antecessor">Homo antecessor</a></i>)<sup>?</sup> → <i><a href="Homo_heidelbergensis" title="Homo heidelbergensis">Homo heidelbergensis</a></i> → <i>archaic Homo sapiens</i> → <i><a href="Human" title="Human">Homo sapiens</a></i></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Hunting_hypothesis" title="Hunting hypothesis">Hunting</a></li>

<li><a href="Gathering_hypothesis" title="Gathering hypothesis">Gathering</a></li>

<li><a href="Endurance_running_hypothesis" title="Endurance running hypothesis">Endurance running</a></li>

<li><a href="Aquatic_ape_hypothesis" title="Aquatic ape hypothesis">Aquatic ape</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_selection_in_humans" title="Sexual selection in humans">Sexual selection</a></li>

<li><a href="Self-domestication#In_humans" title="Self-domestication">Self-domestication</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specific models</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Diet

<ul><li><a href="Control_of_fire_by_early_humans#The_cooking_hypothesis" title="Control of fire by early humans">Cooking</a></li>

<li><a href="Expensive_tissue_hypothesis" title="Expensive tissue hypothesis">Expensive tissue</a></li>

<li><a href="Aquatic_ape_hypothesis#Diet" title="Aquatic ape hypothesis">Shore-based</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Drugs

<ul><li><a href="Drunken_monkey_hypothesis" title="Drunken monkey hypothesis">Drunken monkey</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_models_of_human_drug_use" title="Evolutionary models of human drug use">Evolutionary models of human drug use</a></li>

<li><a href="Stoned_ape_theory" title="Stoned ape theory">Stoned ape theory</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Behavior

<ul><li><a href="Killer_ape_theory" title="Killer ape theory">Killer ape</a></li>

<li><a href="Cooperative_eye_hypothesis" title="Cooperative eye hypothesis">Cooperative eye</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Life history

<ul><li><a href="Grandmother_hypothesis" title="Grandmother hypothesis">Grandmother</a></li>

<li><a href="Patriarch_hypothesis" title="Patriarch hypothesis">Patriarch</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics<br></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Evolution_of_bipedalism_in_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of bipedalism in humans">Bipedalism</a></li>

<li><a href="Human_skeletal_changes_due_to_bipedalism" title="Human skeletal changes due to bipedalism">Skeleton</a></li>

<li><a href="Muscular_evolution_in_humans" title="Muscular evolution in humans">Muscles</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_skin_color" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolution of skin color">Skin color</a></li>

<li><a href="Cold_and_heat_adaptations_in_humans" title="Cold and heat adaptations in humans">Thermoregulation</a></li>

<li><a href="Origin_of_speech" title="Origin of speech">Speech</a></li>

<li><a href="Origin_of_language" title="Origin of language">Language</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolution_of_human_intelligence" title="Evolution of human intelligence">Intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_division_of_labour#Hypotheses_for_the_evolutionary_origins_of_SDL" title="Sexual division of labour">Gender roles</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Origin_of_modern_humans" class="mw-redirect" title="Origin of modern humans">Origin of modern humans</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Recent_African_origin_of_modern_humans" title="Recent African origin of modern humans">Recent African origin</a></li>

<li><a href="Multiregional_origin_of_modern_humans" title="Multiregional origin of modern humans">Multiregional origin</a></li>

<li><a href="Interbreeding_between_archaic_and_modern_humans" title="Interbreeding between archaic and modern humans">Archaic admixture</a></li>

<li><a href="Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">Behavioral modernity</a></li>

<li><a href="Early_human_migrations" title="Early human migrations">Early migrations</a></li>

<li><a href="Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent evolution</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Timelines</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Timeline_of_human_evolution" title="Timeline of human evolution">Human evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_prehistory" title="Timeline of prehistory">Human prehistory</a></li>

<li>Human timeline</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Theorists</li>

<li>Books</li>

<li><a href="List_of_human_evolution_fossils" title="List of human evolution fossils">Fossils</a></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_anthropology" title="Evolutionary anthropology">Evolutionary anthropology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Paleoanthropology" title="Paleoanthropology">Paleoanthropology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Human_evolutionary_developmental_biology" title="Human evolutionary developmental biology">Human evolutionary developmental biology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> <b>Category</b></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Human_evolution" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Human evolution">Commons</a></b></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> <b><a href="Portal%3AEvolutionary_biology" title="Portal:Evolutionary biology">Evolutionary biology Portal</a></b></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Human_genetics235" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Human_genetics235" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Human_genetics" title="Human genetics">Human genetics</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Sub-topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Human_genome" title="Human genome">Human genome</a>

<ul><li><a href="Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a></li></ul></li>

<li>

<ul><li><a href="Chimpanzee%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor">Human-chimp MRCA</a></li>

<li><a href="Neanderthal_genetics" title="Neanderthal genetics">Neanderthal genetics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Neanderthal_genome_project" title="Neanderthal genome project">Neanderthal genome project</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Timeline_of_human_evolution" title="Timeline of human evolution">Timeline</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Human_genetic_variation" title="Human genetic variation">Genetic variation</a>

<ul><li><a href="Blood_type_distribution_by_country" title="Blood type distribution by country">Blood type distribution by country</a></li>

<li><a href="Genealogical_DNA_test" title="Genealogical DNA test">Genealogical DNA test</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_genealogy" title="Genetic genealogy">Genetic genealogy</a></li>

<li><a href="Race_and_genetics" title="Race and genetics">Race and genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Recent_human_evolution" title="Recent human evolution">Recent evolution</a></li>

<li><a href="Surname_DNA_project" title="Surname DNA project">Surname DNA project</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Human_genetic_enhancement" title="Human genetic enhancement">Genetic enhancement</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="Archaeogenetics" title="Archaeogenetics">Genetic history</a> <br>by region</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Genetic_history_of_Africa" title="Genetic history of Africa">Africa</a>

<ul><li><a href="Genetic_history_of_North_Africa" title="Genetic history of North Africa">North Africa</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_history_of_West_Africa" title="Genetic history of West Africa">West Africa‎‎</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_history_of_Central_Africa" title="Genetic history of Central Africa">Central Africa</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_history_of_Eastern_Africa" title="Genetic history of Eastern Africa">Eastern Africa‎‎</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_history_of_Southern_Africa" title="Genetic history of Southern Africa">Southern Africa</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_history_of_the_African_diaspora" title="Genetic history of the African diaspora">African diaspora</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Genetics_and_archaeogenetics_of_South_Asia" title="Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia">South Asia</a>

<ul><li><a href="Peopling_of_India" title="Peopling of India">India</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_history_of_the_Middle_East" title="Genetic history of the Middle East">Middle East</a>

<ul><li><a href="Early_Anatolian_farmers" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Anatolian farmers">Early Anatolian farmers</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_history_of_the_Caucasus" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic history of the Caucasus">Caucasus</a>

<ul><li><a href="Caucasus_hunter-gatherer" title="Caucasus hunter-gatherer">Caucasus hunter-gatherer</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Europe</a>

<ul><li><a href="Early_European_Farmers" title="Early European Farmers">Early European Farmers</a></li>

<li><a href="Western_hunter-gatherer" title="Western hunter-gatherer">Western hunter-gatherer</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_history_of_the_British_Isles" title="Genetic history of the British Isles">British Isles</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_history_of_the_Iberian_Peninsula" title="Genetic history of the Iberian Peninsula">Iberia</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_history_of_Italy" title="Genetic history of Italy">Italy</a></li>

<li><a href="Eastern_hunter-gatherer" title="Eastern hunter-gatherer">Eastern hunter-gatherer</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_history_of_Central_Asia" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic history of Central Asia">Central Asia</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ancient_North_Eurasian" title="Ancient North Eurasian">Ancient North Eurasian</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Ancient_Northeast_Asian" title="Ancient Northeast Asian">Ancient Northeast Asian</a></li>

<li><a href="Ancient_Paleo-Siberian" title="Ancient Paleo-Siberian">Ancient Paleo-Siberian</a></li>

<li><a href="Peopling_of_China" title="Peopling of China">China</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Peopling_of_Southeast_Asia" title="Peopling of Southeast Asia">Southeast Asia</a>

<ul><li><a href="Peopling_of_Thailand" title="Peopling of Thailand">Thailand</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Genetic history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">America</a>

<ul><li><a href="Ancient_Beringian" title="Ancient Beringian">Ancient Beringian</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;"><a href="Population_genetics" title="Population genetics">Population genetics</a> <br>by group</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li>Europe

<ul><li><a href="Origin_of_the_Basques" title="Origin of the Basques">Basques</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_studies_on_Bosniaks" title="Genetic studies on Bosniaks">Bosniaks</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_studies_on_Bulgarians" title="Genetic studies on Bulgarians">Bulgarians</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_studies_on_Croats" title="Genetic studies on Croats">Croats</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_studies_on_Romanians" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic studies on Romanians">Romanians</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_studies_on_Russians" title="Genetic studies on Russians">Russians</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_studies_on_Serbs" title="Genetic studies on Serbs">Serbs</a></li></ul></li>

<li>MENA

<ul><li><a href="Genetic_studies_on_Arabs" title="Genetic studies on Arabs">Arabs</a></li>

<li><a href="Origin_of_the_Azerbaijanis" title="Origin of the Azerbaijanis">Azerbaijanis</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_history_of_Egypt" title="Genetic history of Egypt">Egyptians</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_studies_on_Moroccans" title="Genetic studies on Moroccans">Moroccans</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_studies_on_Turkish_people" title="Genetic studies on Turkish people">Turks</a></li></ul></li>

<li>South Asia

<ul><li><a href="Genetic_studies_on_Gujarati_people" title="Genetic studies on Gujarati people">Gujaratis</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_studies_on_Sinhalese" title="Genetic studies on Sinhalese">Sinhalese</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_studies_on_Sri_Lankan_Tamils" title="Genetic studies on Sri Lankan Tamils">Tamils (Sri Lankan)</a></li></ul></li>

<li>East Asia

<ul><li><a href="Genetic_studies_on_Han_Chinese" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic studies on Han Chinese">Han Chinese</a></li>

<li><a href="Genetic_and_anthropometric_studies_on_Japanese_people" title="Genetic and anthropometric studies on Japanese people">Japanese</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Southeast Asia

<ul><li><a href="Genetic_and_anthropology_studies_on_Filipinos" title="Genetic and anthropology studies on Filipinos">Filipinos</a></li></ul></li>

<li>Sub-Saharan Africa

<ul><li><a href="Genetic_studies_on_Hutu_and_Tutsi" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic studies on Hutu and Tutsi">Hutu/Tutsi</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span><b>Category</b></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

This article is issued from <a class="external text" title="Last edited on 2025-03-26" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/?title=Human_evolutionary_genetics&oldid=1282396562">Wikipedia</a>. The text is available under <a class="external text" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted. Additional terms may apply for the media files.

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